Learning and Memory

Classical and Operant Conditioning

In Pavlov's classical conditioning, a neutral stimulus (bell) paired with an unconditioned stimulus (food, which naturally elicits salivation) becomes a conditioned stimulus eliciting a conditioned response. Key phenomena: acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, discrimination. Skinner's operant conditioning shapes behavior by consequences: positive/negative reinforcement increase behavior (add pleasant / remove unpleasant); positive/negative punishment decrease it.

Reinforcement Schedules (Ultra High Yield)

Fixed ratio produces high rates with post-reward pauses (piecework pay); variable ratio produces the highest rates and the greatest resistance to extinction (slot machines); fixed interval produces a scalloped pattern (cramming before a weekly quiz); variable interval produces steady moderate responding. Rule: ratio beats interval for speed, variable beats fixed for persistence.

Memory Systems

Sensory memory lasts under a second (iconic) to a few seconds (echoic); short-term/working memory holds about seven plus-or-minus two items for roughly 30 seconds; long-term memory is effectively unlimited, divided into explicit (episodic, semantic) and implicit (procedural) subtypes.

Key Takeaways

• Classical conditioning pairs stimuli; operant conditioning uses consequences
• Negative reinforcement increases behavior -- it is not punishment
• Variable ratio schedules resist extinction most (gambling)
• Memory: sensory, then working (7 plus/minus 2), then long-term (explicit vs. implicit)