Segregation: allele pairs separate into gametes. Independent assortment: genes on different chromosomes sort independently — the cellular basis is random homolog orientation at metaphase I.
Monohybrid Aa×Aa gives 1:2:1 genotypes and 3:1 phenotypes; a test cross against aa reveals an unknown genotype. For dihybrids, skip the 16-box grid and multiply single-gene probabilities: Each fertilization is independent of previous children.
Inheritance models, pedigrees, and trait expression
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P(tall and wrinkled)=43×41=163
Beyond Mendel
Incomplete dominance blends (red and white make pink, 1:2:1 phenotypes); codominance expresses both alleles fully (AB blood shows both antigens).
ABO: IA and IB are codominant, both dominant over i; a type O child needs an i from each parent, the core of exclusion problems. Type O donates universally; AB receives universally.
Pleiotropy: one gene, many effects (sickle cell). Epistasis: one locus masks another (yellow Labradors). Polygenic traits vary continuously. Mitochondrial DNA passes maternally — an affected mother transmits to all children. X-linked recessive traits appear far more often in hemizygous males.
Key Takeaways
The product rule solves dihybrid questions fastest.
Distinguish blended (incomplete dominance) from dual expression (codominance).
ABO paternity logic: type AB parents cannot have type O children.