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Globalization & Technology

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Globalization & Technology - Complete Interactive Lesson

Part 1: Core Concepts

Globalization & Technology After 1900

Part 1 of 7 — Core Concepts

Section
Defining globalization: economic, cultural, political dimensions
The Bretton Woods order (1944): IMF, World Bank, GATT
The information revolution and the rise of the knowledge economy
Why technological change accelerated after 1945

Key idea: Globalization after 1945 is not the first global integration (Silk Road, Atlantic system, 1870–1914 first wave), but it is the deepest and the most digitally mediated. The post-1945 system rests on three pillars: U.S.-led monetary institutions, ever-cheaper transportation and communications, and the diffusion of multinational corporations across borders.

Defining Globalization

Dimension	Examples
Economic	Cross-border trade, foreign direct investment, multinational supply chains, currency markets
Cultural	Global media (Hollywood, K-pop), English as lingua franca, global brands, sports (Olympics, FIFA)
Political	International organizations (UN, WTO, IMF, World Bank), NGOs (Amnesty, Greenpeace), trade blocs (EU, NAFTA, ASEAN)
Technological	Container shipping (1956), satellite communications (1962), the Internet (1990s), smartphones (2007)
Demographic	Global migration, refugee flows, brain drain, urbanization to mega-cities

The Bretton Woods Order (1944)

In July 1944 — before WWII even ended — 730 delegates from 44 Allied nations met at Bretton Woods, New Hampshire to design the postwar economic order.

Institution	Founded	Purpose
International Monetary Fund (IMF)	1945	Stabilize exchange rates; lend to countries with balance-of-payments crises
International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank)	1944	Finance European reconstruction; later, development lending
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)	1947	Negotiate progressive tariff reductions through "rounds"
World Trade Organization (WTO)	1995	Successor to GATT; binding dispute resolution and broader scope

Key rule of the original system: Currencies pegged to the U.S. dollar; the dollar pegged to gold at $35 per ounce. This held until 1971, when Nixon ended dollar-gold convertibility ("Nixon Shock").

The Information Revolution

Decade	Breakthrough	Significance
1947	Bell Labs invents the transistor	Foundation of all later electronics
1958	Integrated circuit invented	Miniaturization begins
1969	ARPANET (precursor to Internet)	Packet switching demonstrated
1971	Intel 4004 microprocessor	Computer-on-a-chip
1981	IBM PC	Personal computing for offices
1989	World Wide Web invented at CERN	Hypertext on the Internet
1995	Netscape IPO; commercial Web takes off	Dot-com era begins
2007	iPhone introduced	Mobile Internet for billions
2010s	Cloud computing, big data, AI	Knowledge-economy infrastructure

Why Technological Change Accelerated After 1945

Driver	Mechanism
Massive U.S. defense R&D budgets	DARPA, NASA, Bell Labs all funded by Cold War priorities
Public university expansion	The GI Bill in the U.S.; postwar university growth in Europe and East Asia
Patent and copyright frameworks	Reliable global IP protection encouraged private R&D
Falling transportation costs	Containerization (1956 onward) cut shipping costs dramatically
Falling communications costs	Satellites, undersea fiber optic cables, then the Internet

Key takeaway: The post-1945 globalization wave is built on the Bretton Woods institutions plus the information revolution. Whenever an AP prompt asks "why globalization accelerated after 1945," your two-pillar answer is: U.S.-led monetary order + cheap communications and transportation.

Concept Check — Bretton Woods

Term Sprint — Globalization institutions

Match each Bretton Woods–era institution to its primary function.

Applied AP Practice — Why globalization accelerated

Part 2: Key Processes

Globalization & Technology After 1900

Part 2 of 7 — Key Processes

Section
Multinational corporations and the global supply chain
Free trade agreements: NAFTA (1994), EU Single Market (1993), ASEAN
Financialization and the dollar system after 1971
Foreign direct investment and offshoring

Key idea: After 1971, the world economy reorganized around floating exchange rates, multinational corporations, and globally distributed supply chains. Production was unbundled — design in one country, components in many, assembly in another, sales everywhere.

Multinational Corporations (MNCs)

Period	MNC pattern
Pre-1945	Vertically integrated — controlled raw material extraction (oil, rubber, bananas)
1945–1980	Production mostly in home country; sales offices abroad (GM, Ford, Sony)
1980–2000	Global supply chains — Apple designs in Cupertino, components from Korea/Taiwan/Japan, assembly in China, sold worldwide
2000–today	"Triangle trade" — components made in Asia, assembled in China, sold to U.S. and Europe; data and finance flow back

Major Free Trade Agreements

Agreement

Part 3: Patterns & Examples

Globalization & Technology After 1900

Part 3 of 7 — Patterns & Examples

Section
The Asian Tigers and the Chinese miracle
The Internet revolution: from ARPANET to mobile
Cultural globalization: Hollywood, K-pop, English, the Olympics
Environmental globalization: the Green Revolution and its critics

Key idea: AP prompts on globalization love specific cases. Memorize three: the Asian Tigers (state-led export growth), China after 1978 (Deng's reforms + 2001 WTO), and the Internet (1969 ARPANET → 1989 Web → 2007 iPhone). All three illustrate how state policy, technology, and global markets combined to produce uneven outcomes.

The Asian Tigers (1960s–1990s)

Tiger	Strategy	Result
South Korea	Park Chung-hee's 1962 export-led plan; chaebols (Samsung, Hyundai, LG)	Per capita GDP under $100 in 1960 → over $10,000 by 1995
Taiwan	Land reform; export-processing zones; semiconductor industry (TSMC founded 1987)	Built dominant global chip foundry capability
Hong Kong	British colony until 1997; free trade port; finance hub	Reverted to PRC under "one country, two systems"
Singapore

Part 4: Connections & Interactions

Globalization & Technology After 1900

Part 4 of 7 — Connections & Interactions

Section
Mass migration: economic migrants, refugees, brain drain
Diasporas, remittances, and transnational communities
Resistance: anti-globalization movements (Seattle 1999, World Social Forum)
Pandemics in a globalized world: HIV/AIDS, SARS, H1N1, COVID-19

Key idea: Globalization is not just trade and finance. It moves people, viruses, ideas, and protests across borders. AP prompts often ask about how migration and disease have reshaped political and cultural life — and how protest movements have organized transnationally to challenge the globalization model itself.

Mass Migration After 1945

Type	Examples
Labor migration	Turks to Germany (Gastarbeiter, 1961+); Mexicans to U.S. (Bracero 1942–64, post-1965 immigration); Filipinos and South Asians to Gulf States
Refugee flows	Palestinians 1948+; Vietnamese boat people 1975+; Afghans 1979+; Syrians 2011+; Ukrainians 2022+
Postcolonial migration	West Indians to UK (Windrush); Algerians to France; Indonesians to the Netherlands
Brain drain	Indian engineers to Silicon Valley; African doctors to UK/Canada; Chinese students to U.S. universities

Diasporas and Remittances

Part 5: Change Over Time

Globalization & Technology After 1900

Part 5 of 7 — Change Over Time

Section
Three phases of post-1945 globalization
Phase 1 (1945–1971): Bretton Woods, embedded liberalism, decolonization
Phase 2 (1971–1991): floating rates, neoliberalism, trade expansion
Phase 3 (1991–today): hyper-globalization, China rises, anti-globalization backlash
What stayed the same; what changed

Key idea: AP CCOT prompts on globalization are won by students who divide the period into clear phases AND identify what stayed continuous across them.

Phase 1 (1945–1971) — "Embedded Liberalism"

Feature	Description
Monetary order	Fixed exchange rates anchored to dollar-gold
Trade	GATT rounds steadily lowered tariffs on manufactured goods
Capital flows	Tightly regulated; capital controls common
State role	Strong: postwar welfare states, full-employment commitments
Decolonization	Most of Asia and Africa achieved independence in this phase

Phase 2 (1971–1991) — Neoliberal Turn

Part 6: Problem-Solving Workshop

Globalization & Technology After 1900

Part 6 of 7 — Problem-Solving Workshop

Section
HIPP for documents about globalization and technology
Document bank: Friedman's "The World Is Flat," Stiglitz's "Globalization and Its Discontents," WTO founding documents, Paris Agreement
AP SAQ structure for globalization prompts
Common AP traps to avoid

Key idea: Globalization documents have a clear authorial position — pro-globalization, critical, or technocratic. Sourcing the author's position is the highest-value AP move on these prompts.

HIPP for Globalization Documents

Letter	Question	Globalization Application
Historical context	What was happening when this was produced?	Pre-2008 boom era? Post-2008 backlash? Pre/post China-WTO?
Intended audience	Who was this for?	Policy elites? Mass public? Specific national audience?
Purpose	What was the author trying to do?	Defend globalization? Critique it? Reform it from within?
oint of view

Part 7: AP Review

Globalization & Technology After 1900

Part 7 of 7 — AP Review

Section
High-yield dates and one-line significance
Comparison framework: Phase 1 vs. Phase 2 vs. Phase 3
CCOT framework for globalization 1945–today
Sprint terms most likely to appear on the AP exam

Key idea: Use this part as your night-before-the-exam reference for post-1945 globalization. Drill the dates, the comparisons, and the AP skills.

High-Yield Dates

Year	Event	One-Line Significance
1944	Bretton Woods Conference	Designs postwar monetary order
1945	IMF and World Bank founded	Bretton Woods institutions
1947	GATT signed; transistor invented	Trade liberalization + electronics revolution begin
1956	First container ship voyage (Malcom McLean)	Containerization era begins
1957	EEC (later EU) founded by Treaty of Rome	European integration begins

Financialization and the Dollar System After 1971

Feature	Description
Floating exchange rates	After Nixon Shock 1971; major currencies float freely against the dollar
Petrodollar recycling	After 1973 oil shock, OPEC oil priced in dollars; oil revenues parked in U.S./European banks
Eurodollar markets	Dollars held outside the U.S.; lent globally without U.S. regulation
Capital account liberalization	1980s–90s: capital controls dismantled in most major economies
Derivatives markets	Trillions in interest-rate swaps, currency forwards, credit default swaps
2008 Global Financial Crisis	Subprime mortgage collapse → cascading global crisis; G-20 emerges as crisis-management forum

Foreign Direct Investment and Offshoring

Decade	Pattern
1960s–70s	U.S. firms open European subsidiaries; Japanese auto firms open U.S. plants in 1980s
1980s–90s	Maquiladoras in Mexico; export processing zones in Asia
1990s–2000s	China becomes "factory of the world" after 2001 WTO accession
2000s–10s	Services offshored too — Indian IT outsourcing, Filipino call centers
2020s	Some "reshoring" and "friend-shoring" after COVID-19 supply chain disruptions

Key takeaway: The MNC + global supply chain + dollar-based financial system together define post-1971 globalization. AP prompts often ask whether globalization "made workers worse off" — your answer should distinguish between consumers (gained from cheaper goods), workers in offshoring countries (gained jobs), workers in deindustrializing regions (lost jobs and wages), and shareholders (gained capital returns).

Concept Check — MNCs and supply chains

Term Sprint — globalization vocabulary

Match each event to the decade it most clearly belongs to.

Applied AP Practice — Distributive effects of globalization

The Chinese Miracle (1978–today)

Year	Event	Significance
1978	Deng Xiaoping launches "Reform and Opening"	Decollectivized agriculture; opened Special Economic Zones
1980	Shenzhen designated SEZ	Fishing village → mega-city of 18 million
1989	Tiananmen Square crackdown	Reforms continue economically; political opening reversed
1992	Deng's "Southern Tour"	Reaffirms market reforms
2001	China joins WTO	Manufacturing share of global exports skyrockets
2008	Beijing Olympics	China's coming-out party as global power
2013	Belt and Road Initiative announced	Chinese-financed infrastructure across Asia, Africa, Europe

Result: ~800 million Chinese lifted out of extreme poverty between 1981 and 2015 — the largest poverty reduction in world history.

The Internet Revolution

Year	Event	Significance
1969	ARPANET sends first message	Packet-switched precursor to the Internet
1983	TCP/IP protocol adopted	The Internet's common language
1989	Tim Berners-Lee invents the Web at CERN	Hypertext on the Internet
1995	Netscape IPO; Amazon and eBay founded	Commercial Web takes off
1998	Google founded	Search becomes the gateway to the Web
2004	Facebook founded	Social media era begins
2007	iPhone introduced	Mobile Internet for billions
2010	Arab Spring	Social media implicated in mass protests across the Arab world
2020s	TikTok, generative AI	New rounds of platform and AI competition

Cultural Globalization

Domain	Pattern
Film	Hollywood dominant 1920s–today; "Bollywood" produces more films than Hollywood by 2000s; Korean film wins Best Picture (Parasite, 2020)
Music	American rock & jazz globalized 1950s onward; K-pop globalized 2010s onward (BTS, BLACKPINK)
Sport	Olympics, FIFA World Cup, NBA, English Premier League — all became truly global media events
Language	English emerged as the global lingua franca of business, science, and aviation
Food	McDonaldization; sushi, pizza, tacos, and curry all globalized

Environmental Globalization: The Green Revolution

Element	Description
Norman Borlaug's wheat (1940s–60s)	High-yield, disease-resistant varieties
Spread to India and Pakistan (1960s)	Tripled grain output; averted famine
IR8 rice (1966)	"Miracle rice" doubled Asian rice yields
Critics	Required heavy fertilizer, pesticide, irrigation; favored larger farmers; reduced biodiversity

Key takeaway: Globalization unfolded unevenly across regions. The Asian Tigers + China are AP's favorite "winners" cases; deindustrializing Rust Belts and African economies struggling under SAPs are the canonical "losers" cases. Use both in any AP essay on globalization's effects.

Concept Check — Tigers and the Chinese miracle

Term Sprint — globalization cases

Match each milestone to the correct decade.

Applied AP Practice — Cases of uneven globalization

Country	Remittances (2020 est.)	Significance
India	~$83 billion	Largest remittance recipient globally
Mexico	~$43 billion	~3% of GDP
Philippines	~$35 billion	~10% of GDP
Egypt	~$30 billion	Major source of foreign currency

Diaspora politics matter: Indian diaspora lobbies in U.S. helped pass the 2008 U.S.-India nuclear deal; Cuban-Americans in Florida shaped U.S. Cuba policy; Israeli diaspora networks shape U.S.-Israel ties.

Anti-Globalization Movements

Event	Year	Significance
Battle of Seattle	1999	Tens of thousands shut down WTO meeting; coalition of unions, environmentalists, indigenous groups
World Social Forum (Porto Alegre)	2001+	"Another world is possible" — annual gathering of left/global-justice movements
Genoa G8 protests	2001	One protester killed by police; further militarization of summit security
Occupy Wall Street	2011	"We are the 99%" — protest against post-2008 inequality
Yellow Vests (France)	2018+	Protest against fuel taxes; broader anti-globalization grievances

Pandemics in a Globalized World

Disease	Years	Notes
HIV/AIDS	1981+	~40 million dead globally; activist movements (ACT UP) won expanded treatment access
SARS	2002–03	Originated in China; spread along air travel routes; ~800 dead
H1N1 ("swine flu")	2009	First WHO-declared pandemic of the century
Ebola	2014–16	Concentrated in West Africa; revealed weak global health infrastructure
COVID-19	2020+	Started in Wuhan; ~7 million confirmed deaths; mRNA vaccines developed in under a year

Pandemic globalization paradox: Cheap air travel that enables tourism and global business is the same infrastructure that turns a regional outbreak into a global pandemic in weeks.
Key takeaway: AP prompts on connections often ask students to analyze how a single phenomenon (migration, disease, protest) tied together multiple regions. The strongest essays name specific cases (Windrush, COVID, Seattle) rather than speaking abstractly about "global integration."

Concept Check — Migration and pandemics

Term Sprint — connections vocabulary

Match each migration flow to the correct receiving country.

Applied AP Practice — Globalization and pandemics

Phase 3 (1991–today) — Hyper-Globalization

Feature	Description
Monetary order	Dollar dominance; Euro launched 1999/2002; renminbi gradually internationalized
Trade	WTO 1995; China joins 2001; supply chains span continents
Capital flows	Trillions in cross-border daily currency trading; 2008 Global Financial Crisis
Technology	Internet, mobile, cloud, social media, AI
Backlash	Seattle 1999, 2008 crisis, Brexit 2016, Trump-era tariffs, U.S.-China trade war
Pandemics	SARS 2003, H1N1 2009, COVID-19 2020 expose supply chain fragility

Continuities Across All Three Phases

Continuity	Manifestation
U.S. dollar dominance	From Bretton Woods peg to floating reserve currency to today
Western-led international institutions	UN, IMF, World Bank, NATO; reformed but not replaced
Rising international trade share of GDP	Trade share climbed steadily across all phases
Persistent inequality between regions	Wealthy core / developing periphery gap shrank in some places (East Asia) but persisted in many others

Major Changes Across Phases

Change	From → To
Exchange rates	Fixed (1945–71) → Floating (1971+)
State role	Strong "embedded liberal" (1945–71) → Neoliberal retrenchment (1980s+)
Trade scope	Manufactured goods (early GATT) → Services, IP, agriculture (WTO)
China	Closed Maoist economy (pre-1978) → Factory of the world (2001+)
Information	Print, radio, TV → Internet, mobile, social media
Center of dynamism	North Atlantic core → Asia-Pacific (especially East Asia)

Key takeaway: Three-phase periodization is the AP-best CCOT framing for post-1945 globalization. Each phase has its own monetary regime, trade pattern, and dominant ideology — and continuities (dollar, Western institutions, trade growth) connect them all.

Concept Check — Phases of globalization

Term Sprint — phase identifiers

Match each event to the phase of globalization it most clearly belongs to.

Applied AP Practice — CCOT writing

1. Thomas Friedman, "The World Is Flat" (2005) "When the world is flat, you can innovate without having to emigrate."

HIPP: Bestselling popular book by a New York Times columnist; intended audience is U.S. business and policy class; purpose is to celebrate the offshoring/Internet-enabled "flattening" of global competition; POV is American liberal-globalist optimism at the height of the 2000s globalization wave.

2. Joseph Stiglitz, "Globalization and Its Discontents" (2002) "Decisions were made on the basis of what seemed a curious blend of ideology and bad economics."

HIPP: Book by a Nobel-winning economist and former World Bank Chief Economist; intended audience is policy elites and informed public; purpose is to critique IMF Structural Adjustment Programs from inside the institution; POV is heterodox Keynesian economist who served at the highest levels of the institutions he critiques.

3. WTO Marrakesh Agreement (1994) "The Members establish the World Trade Organization … to develop an integrated, more viable and durable multilateral trading system."

HIPP: Founding treaty of the WTO, signed by 123 governments; intended audience is the international trade-policy community; purpose is to formalize the most ambitious global trade rule-making body in history; POV is technocratic, multilateral, rules-based.

4. Paris Agreement on Climate Change (2015) "Holding the increase in the global average temperature to well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels."

HIPP: Multilateral agreement under the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change, signed by ~196 parties; intended audience is signatory states and the global public; purpose is to commit signatories to nationally determined contributions to limit global warming; POV is multilateral environmental governance.

5. Donald Trump, Inaugural Address (January 20, 2017) "Protection will lead to great prosperity and strength."

HIPP: Speech at the inauguration of the 45th U.S. president; intended audience is the American public, particularly working-class voters in deindustrialized regions; purpose is to repudiate the post-1945 free-trade consensus and signal a turn to "America First" trade policy; POV is right-populist nationalism in the wake of post-2008 disillusionment with globalization.

AP SAQ Structure (3 parts)

For a globalization SAQ:

A. Identify one specific feature of post-1945 globalization
B. Explain how that feature contributed to a specific outcome (growth, inequality, integration, backlash)
C. Compare to a different phase OR explain a contrasting interpretation

Trap	Why It Costs Points
Calling globalization either "good" or "bad"	AP rewards distributive analysis (winners and losers)
Treating globalization as a uniquely post-1945 phenomenon	The first globalization wave (~1870–1914) had high trade and migration too
Treating the Internet as the cause of globalization	The Internet accelerated existing trends rooted in Bretton Woods + containers
Quoting documents without HIPP	The complexity point requires sourcing
Ignoring China	Post-1978 China is the single largest globalization story of the era

Key takeaway: Treat every globalization document as evidence about the author's position in the globalization debate, not just about the world. Friedman's 2005 book tells you what optimistic American liberals believed in 2005, not just what the world was like.

Concept Check — Document Sourcing

Term Sprint — match the document to its author

Match each document to the HIPP element it most directly tests.

Applied AP Practice — SAQ format

Comparison Frameworks

Phases of Globalization

Question	Phase 1 (1945–71)	Phase 2 (1971–91)	Phase 3 (1991–today)
Exchange rates	Fixed, dollar-gold	Floating	Floating + Euro + RMB internationalization
Capital flows	Tightly controlled	Liberalizing	Fully liberalized
State role	Strong (welfare states)	Retrenching (neoliberal)	Reasserting after 2008 / pandemic
Big winners	Western Europe, Japan recovery	OPEC, Asian Tigers	China, Internet platforms, India IT
Crisis events	Suez, Vietnam, oil shock late	Latin debt, USSR collapse	2008 GFC, COVID

Pro vs. Critic Frameworks

Question	Pro-globalization (e.g., Friedman)	Critical (e.g., Stiglitz, anti-globalization movements)
Trade	Lifts all boats; ~800 million Chinese poverty reduction	Creates rust belts; hollows out manufacturing in deindustrializing regions
Capital	Efficient allocation across borders	Generates contagion crises (1997 Asia, 2008 Global)
Culture	Cosmopolitanism; spread of human rights norms	Homogenization; loss of local traditions
Politics	Spreads democracy; constrains authoritarianism	Empowers technocrats over democratic publics

CCOT Framework (1945–today)

Continuity	Change
U.S. dollar dominance	From gold-pegged to floating reserve currency to digital
Western-led international institutions	Reformed (e.g., G-20 added 2008) but not replaced
Rising trade share of global GDP	Climbed steadily through 2008; plateaued 2008–today
Persistent global inequality	East Asian convergence; African divergence in many cases

Continuity	Change
Cross-border migration	From decolonization-era flows to refugee crises and skilled migration
Pandemic risk	From localized epidemics to truly global pandemics enabled by air travel
Information technology	From print/radio/TV to Internet, mobile, AI
Energy basis	Oil-dominated through 2010s; renewables share rising

Sprint Terms (Last-Minute Drill)

Bretton Woods — 1944 conference designing the postwar monetary order
GATT / WTO — Tariff-reduction body (1947) and its 1995 successor
Nixon Shock — August 1971 end of dollar-gold convertibility
Containerization — 1956 onward standardized cargo box that cut shipping costs ~90%
NAFTA — 1994 trilateral free-trade agreement (U.S., Canada, Mexico)
Euro — Common currency introduced 1999/2002
Reform and Opening — Deng's 1978 program that launched modern Chinese growth
Asian Tigers — South Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Singapore
Maquiladora — Mexican border-zone export factories under NAFTA
Brain drain — Outmigration of skilled workers from developing countries
Remittances — Money sent home by migrant workers
Battle of Seattle — 1999 anti-WTO protests
2008 GFC — Global Financial Crisis triggered by U.S. subprime collapse
Paris Agreement — 2015 multilateral climate accord
Brexit — 2016 UK referendum to leave the European Union
Key takeaway: If you only memorize ten dates, make them: 1944 (Bretton Woods), 1956 (containerization), 1971 (Nixon Shock), 1978 (Deng), 1989 (Berlin Wall + Web), 1994 (NAFTA), 1995 (WTO), 2001 (China WTO + 9/11), 2008 (GFC), 2015 (Paris).

Concept Check — High-Yield Recall

Final Term Sprint — high-yield recall

Match each AP-style prompt to the historical thinking skill it most directly tests.

Applied AP Practice — Final Drill

EEC / EU Single Market	1957 / 1993	Western European democracies	Customs union → single market with free movement of goods, capital, labor
ASEAN	1967	Southeast Asian states	Originally anti-communist; later economic cooperation
Maastricht Treaty	1992	EU members	Created the Euro currency (introduced 1999/2002)
NAFTA	1994	U.S., Canada, Mexico	Trilateral free trade; later replaced by USMCA (2020)
WTO	1995	164 members today	Binding global trade rules
China joins WTO	2001	—	China integrated into rules-based global trade

Monetary order	Floating exchange rates after Nixon Shock; petrodollar recycling after 1973
Trade	Continued GATT rounds; rise of regional trade agreements
Capital flows	Capital controls dismantled (UK 1979, Japan 1980, U.S. fully open)
State role	Thatcher (1979) and Reagan (1981) lead deregulation, privatization, tax cuts
Developing world	Latin American debt crisis (1982); IMF Structural Adjustment Programs across Africa and Latin America
End	1989 fall of Berlin Wall; 1991 USSR collapse remove the ideological alternative

Globalization & Technology

Financialization and the Dollar System After 1971

Foreign Direct Investment and Offshoring

The Chinese Miracle (1978–today)

The Internet Revolution

Cultural Globalization

Environmental Globalization: The Green Revolution

Anti-Globalization Movements

Pandemics in a Globalized World

Phase 3 (1991–today) — Hyper-Globalization

Continuities Across All Three Phases

Major Changes Across Phases

Document Bank

AP SAQ Structure (3 parts)

Common AP Traps

Comparison Frameworks

CCOT Framework (1945–today)

Sprint Terms (Last-Minute Drill)