Industrialization & Development Models

🌍 Industrialization & Development

Part 1 of 7 — Economic Sectors and Growth Models

Economic Sectors

🔑 AP Key Point: As countries develop, their workforce shifts from primary → secondary → tertiary sectors. This is a key indicator of economic development on the AP exam.

Development Models

Rostow 5 Stages

1. Traditional — subsistence agriculture, limited technology
2. Preconditions for takeoff — infrastructure investment, commercial agriculture begins
3. Takeoff — rapid industrialization, urbanization accelerates
4. Drive to maturity — diversified economy, technology spreads widely
5. Age of mass consumption — high income, service-based economy

⚠️ AP Critique: Rostow assumes ALL countries follow the same path. Dependency theorists argue this ignores how colonial exploitation created structural barriers to development.

Concept Check 🎯

Industrial Location Theory

Weber Least Cost Theory (1909)

Alfred Weber argued that industries locate where costs are minimized:

Bulk-Reducing vs. Bulk-Gaining

The Industrial Revolution

Applied Recall ✍️

1. The economic sector focused on services (retail, education, healthcare) is the _______ sector.

2. Rostow Stages of Growth model proposes that all countries follow _______ stages of economic development.

3. _______ theory argues that poor countries remain poor because of exploitation by wealthy nations.

Apply Weber Theory 🔍

AP Exam Strategy: Industrialization

• Weber least cost theory is heavily tested — know transport, labor, and agglomeration factors
• Bulk-reducing vs bulk-gaining — practice classifying industries
• Rostow vs Dependency Theory — be ready to compare and critique both
• The shift from primary → tertiary sectors is called sectoral transformation or economic restructuring
• Know how the Industrial Revolution affected urbanization, population (DTM), and social structure
• Fordism (assembly line, mass production) vs post-Fordism (flexible, global supply chains) is increasingly tested

AP-Style Application 🎯

🌍 Industrialization & Development

Part 2 of 7 — The Industrial Revolution: Origins, Diffusion and Consequences

🔑 Key Concept: The Industrial Revolution replaced hand tools and animal or water power with machines driven by fossil fuels, first in Great Britain from about the 1760s. As it spread, it reorganized where people lived and worked, created a demand for raw materials that drove colonialism and imperialism, and laid down the core-periphery pattern of the world economy (CED Topic 7.1).

📖 Why Industrialization Began in Great Britain

No single cause explains Britain's head start. Geographers point to a combination of site and situation factors that came together there first.

The Key Technologies

The textile industry led the way. Mills first clustered beside fast rivers for water power; Watt's engine let them move to coalfields and towns, which is why Lancashire cotton towns such as Manchester grew so quickly.

🔑 AP Connection: The steam engine changed the location of industry. Water-powered mills were tied to river sites; steam-powered mills could locate near coal, labor and markets. That shift is an early example of the location factors you will apply with Weber's model in Part 3.

Concept Check 🎯

How Industrialization Diffused

Britain tried to protect its lead, for example by banning the emigration of skilled mechanics (until 1824) and the export of textile machinery (until 1843), but the knowledge spread anyway.

Patterns in the Diffusion

• Relocation diffusion: skilled workers such as Slater carried the know-how in their heads.
• Hierarchical diffusion: industry reached capital cities, ports and coalfields before rural areas.
• The role of the state: latecomers (Germany, Japan, Russia) relied more on government planning and banks to catch up quickly.

Scale matters. At the global scale, industrialization made Western Europe, North America and later Japan the core of the world economy. At the national scale, it concentrated wealth in particular regions (the Ruhr, Lancashire, the U.S. Manufacturing Belt) while other regions stayed agricultural.

Classify the Diffusion 🔍

Raw Materials, Markets and Imperialism

Factories consumed raw materials faster than Europe could supply them, and they produced more goods than home markets could buy. Both needs pushed industrial powers outward.

The Berlin Conference (1884–1885) set European rules for claiming African territory, and by about 1914 European powers controlled nearly all of Africa.

The Lasting Pattern

Colonies were organized to export raw materials and import manufactured goods. Railways ran from mines and plantations to ports, not between interior towns. That colonial economic structure is the root of the commodity dependence that development theorists discuss (Part 6), and its transportation legacy still shapes many African and South Asian economies.

🔑 AP Connection: If a question asks how industrialization affected places that did not industrialize, the answer is often colonialism: periphery regions were tied to the core as suppliers of raw materials and buyers of finished goods.

Consequences for Cities, Population and Society

The Industrial Revolution Did Not End in Britain

Later waves of industrialization (Part 1's three-wave table) moved through steel, chemicals and electricity, then electronics and automation. Since the 1970s, manufacturing has shifted toward East and South Asia, and the old industrial regions of Britain and the United States have deindustrialized, a change covered in the globalization topic.

Misconception: industrialization did not raise living standards immediately or evenly. Wages and life expectancy in early factory cities were often low, and gains came only over decades, partly through reform laws and labor organizing.

Calculate It 🧮

A hypothetical industrial town had 20,000 people in 1800 and 80,000 in 1850.

1) By what percent did its population grow over those 50 years?

2) In 1850, 60,000 of the 80,000 residents were born outside the town. What percent were migrants?

3) The town's death rate fell from 35 to 25 per 1,000 while its birth rate stayed at 40 per 1,000. What was the new rate of natural increase, per 1,000?

Check Your Understanding 🎯

🌍 Industrialization & Development

Part 3 of 7 — Where Industry Locates: Weber's Model and Beyond

🔑 Key Concept: Part 1 introduced the economic sectors and Weber's three location factors. This part turns them into tools: reading how a country's sector mix changes, calculating where a weight-losing or weight-gaining industry should locate, and explaining why real firms often break the model's predictions (CED Topic 7.2).

📖 How the Sector Mix Shifts Over Time

As an economy develops, workers move from the primary sector into the secondary sector, and then from both into the tertiary, quaternary and quinary sectors. The United States shows the full sequence.

Source: USDA Economic Research Service, "The 20th Century Transformation of U.S. Agriculture and Farm Policy" (2005).

Manufacturing followed a different path. Its share of U.S. jobs peaked in the mid-1900s and has fallen since, even though factory output kept rising. Automation and the move of labor-intensive work overseas explain the gap between output and jobs.

Reading a Sector Table

• A large primary share (often above 40% of workers) signals a mostly agricultural, lower-income economy.
• A rising secondary share signals industrialization, as in China from the 1980s.
• A dominant tertiary share with a falling secondary share signals a postindustrial economy and deindustrialization.

Limitation: sector shares describe jobs, not value. A country with few farmers can still be a major farm exporter, and a "service" job can be a low-wage cleaning job or a high-wage legal job.

Concept Check 🎯

Weber's Least Cost Theory, Step by Step

German economist Alfred Weber (1909) asked where a factory should locate to minimize total costs. He treated transportation as the main cost, then asked when labor or clustering could pull a factory away from the cheapest transport site.

The Assumptions

1. Raw material sources and the market are at fixed points.
2. Transport cost rises with weight and distance.
3. Labor is available only at certain places, at fixed wages.
4. The firm sells everything it makes, so it only has to minimize costs.

Weight-Losing and Weight-Gaining Industries

Compare the weight of the inputs with the weight of the finished product. Whichever is heavier is the costlier thing to ship, so it pulls the factory toward itself.

Water, available almost everywhere, adds weight to soft drinks and concrete without pulling the factory toward any one source. That is why bottling is weight-gaining and locates near its markets.

Worked Example: Transport Costs Decide the Site

A mine and a market are 200 km apart on a straight railway. Shipping costs $1 per tonne per km. A smelter needs 5 tonnes of ore to make 1 tonne of metal.

Result: smelting is weight-losing (5 tonnes in, 1 tonne out), so the smelter belongs at the mine, where it ships only the light product.

Now Reverse It: A Bottling Plant

A bottler mixes 1 tonne of syrup with 9 tonnes of local water to make 10 tonnes of soda. The syrup plant is 200 km from the market.

• Bottle at the syrup plant: ship 10 tonnes × 200 km = $2,000.
• Bottle at the market: ship 1 tonne of syrup × 200 km = $200.

Water is available at the market, so only the syrup has to travel: bottling is weight-gaining, and the plant belongs at the market. That is why soda is bottled in many regional plants rather than one central factory.

Calculate It 🧮

A sawmill turns 4 tonnes of logs into 1 tonne of lumber. The forest and the market are 150 km apart, and shipping costs $2 per tonne per km.

1) How many tonnes of logs go into each tonne of lumber?

2) What is the transport cost, in dollars, per tonne of lumber if the mill is built at the forest?

3) What is the transport cost, in dollars, per tonne of lumber if the mill is built at the market?

Labor, Agglomeration and Break-of-Bulk Points

Labor Can Outweigh Transport

Weber argued a firm will leave its cheapest transport site only if labor savings exceed the extra transport cost. Suppose a garment maker's least-transport site is near its market, but a site 1,000 km away adds $3 of transport cost per shirt and saves $5 in wages per shirt. The firm moves, because it gains $2 per shirt. Labor-intensive, light products such as clothing and electronics assembly cross those lines easily, which is why they moved to lower-wage countries.

Agglomeration and Deglomeration

• Agglomeration economies: firms clustered together share suppliers, skilled workers, infrastructure and ideas. Examples: the auto cluster around Detroit in the 1900s; software in Silicon Valley today.
• Deglomeration: when crowding raises land prices, wages, traffic and pollution, some firms leave the cluster.

Break-of-Bulk Points

A break-of-bulk point is a place where cargo moves from one mode of transport to another, such as ship to rail at a port. Because goods must be unloaded there anyway, processing them on the spot avoids an extra round of handling. That is why oil refineries, flour mills and steel plants often sit at ports such as Rotterdam, Europe's largest port, and why Chicago grew where lake shipping met the railways.

🔑 AP Connection: For any industry in a question, ask three things in order: Is it weight-losing or weight-gaining? Is it labor-intensive enough to chase cheap wages? Does it gain from clustering or from a break-of-bulk point?

What Weber Leaves Out

Footloose industries such as software, finance and many high-value electronics have products so light, or so digital, that transport costs barely matter. Their location depends on skilled labor, amenities and agglomeration, which Weber's model does not predict well.

Scale of analysis: Weber's model works best at the regional scale for heavy, bulky industries such as smelting, cement and bottling. At the global scale, labor costs and government policy usually decide where light manufacturing goes.

Check Your Understanding 🎯

Apply the Location Factors 🔍

🌍 Industrialization & Development

Part 4 of 7 — Measuring Development: Indicators and Indexes

🔑 Key Concept: Development is the process of improving the material conditions and well-being of people. No single number captures it, so geographers combine economic measures (output and income), social measures (health and education) and composite indexes (HDI, GII). Every measure has blind spots, and national averages hide differences inside a country (CED Topic 7.3).

📖 Economic Measures: GDP, GNP and GNI

Per capita versions divide the total by population so that large and small countries can be compared:

$\text{GDP per capita} = \frac{\text{GDP}}{\text{population}}$

Purchasing power parity (PPP) adjusts for the fact that the same dollar buys more in some countries than in others, so PPP figures compare real living standards better than raw exchange-rate figures.

How the World Bank Classifies Countries

For fiscal year 2025, using 2023 GNI per capita (Atlas method), the World Bank set these thresholds:

Limits of Economic Measures

• They ignore the informal economy: street vending, unregistered work and unpaid household and farm labor, much of it done by women.
• They are averages, so a few very rich people can raise GDP per capita while most people stay poor.
• They count anything sold, including spending to clean up pollution, and ignore environmental damage.

Concept Check 🎯

Social Measures and Income Distribution

Income Distribution and the Gini Coefficient

The Gini coefficient measures how evenly income is shared, from 0 (everyone has the same income) to 1 (one person has all of it); some sources multiply by 100.

• South Africa is among the most unequal countries measured, at about 0.63 (World Bank).
• Nordic countries such as Norway and Finland are among the most equal, below 0.30.

Why it matters: two countries can have the same GDP per capita but very different lives for the typical person. Pairing an average (GDP per capita) with a distribution measure (Gini) gives a much fuller picture.

Calculate It 🧮

1) A country has a GDP of $600 billion and a population of 40 million. What is its GDP per capita, in dollars?

2) In that country, 300 infants died before their first birthday out of 20,000 live births in one year. What is the infant mortality rate, per 1,000 live births?

3) The country's GNI per capita is $13,000. Using the World Bank's fiscal year 2025 thresholds, it is in which income group? (Type: low, lower-middle, upper-middle or high.)

Composite Indexes: HDI and GII

The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) publishes both indexes in its yearly Human Development Report.

Human Development Index (HDI), since 1990

Each dimension is turned into an index from 0 to 1, and the HDI is their geometric mean. A geometric mean punishes imbalance: a country cannot make up for very poor health with high income. The UNDP groups countries as very high (0.800 and above), high (0.700 to 0.799), medium (0.550 to 0.699) and low (below 0.550). In the 2023/2024 report (2022 data), Switzerland ranked first at about 0.967 and Somalia last at about 0.380.

Gender Inequality Index (GII), since 2010

The GII runs the other way from the HDI: 0 means equality between women and men and higher values mean more inequality. In the same report, Denmark scored about 0.01 (most equal) and Yemen about 0.82 (least equal).

Limits of Composite Indexes

• Weighting choices: combining unlike things (years, dollars, seats) requires judgment calls.
• Data gaps: some countries lack recent, reliable surveys.
• Scale: a national HDI hides regional gaps. India's states, for example, differ widely in life expectancy and schooling.
• What is left out: HDI ignores inequality, political freedom and environmental damage (the UNDP publishes separate adjusted indexes for some of these).

🔑 AP Connection: Watch the direction. A higher HDI is better, but a higher GII is worse. A frequent multiple-choice trap pairs a high GII with "more equal."

Check Your Understanding 🎯

Reading a Development Table

The table shows four hypothetical countries.

Working Through the Table

1. P has the lowest income, shortest lives, highest fertility and largest farm workforce: a low-income, mostly agricultural country.
2. Q and R have almost the same average income, but Q's Gini of 0.58 means income is far more concentrated, so the typical person in Q likely lives on much less than the typical person in R. R's longer life expectancy fits that reading.
3. S fits a high-income, postindustrial economy.
4. Correlation is not proof: low fertility and high income rise together, but each also depends on women's education, urbanization and access to contraception.

Scale reminder: every value is a national average. A rural province in Q might look more like P than like the national figures.

Use the Table 🔍

🌍 Industrialization & Development

Part 5 of 7 — Women and Economic Development

🔑 Key Concept: The roles of women change as countries develop: work moves from unpaid farm and household labor toward paid factory and service jobs, and education and political rights expand. Yet gaps in pay, opportunity and political power persist in every country, and microloans have offered some women a way to start small businesses (CED Topic 7.4).

📖 How Women's Work Changes as Economies Develop

A Model with Limits: The U-Shaped Curve

Economist Claudia Goldin (Nobel Prize, 2023) described a U-shaped relationship between development and women's paid work:

1. In farm economies, women's labor force participation is high, because farm and family work happen together.
2. As industry grows and household incomes rise, participation often falls: factory work moves away from the home, and social norms in many places discourage married women from taking it.
3. As girls' schooling rises and service and white-collar jobs spread, participation rises again.

Limitations: the U describes a broad historical tendency, not a rule. Culture, law and religion shift the curve: participation stays low in some high-income countries and is high in some low-income ones. It also measures paid work, so it misses the unpaid work that women do at every stage.

Why Women's Education Matters for Development

Countries where more girls finish secondary school tend to have lower fertility, lower infant mortality and higher household incomes, because educated women marry later, have fewer and healthier children and earn more. This is one reason the GII (Part 4) includes secondary education.

Concept Check 🎯

Gender Gaps That Remain

Why the Gaps Persist

• Occupational segregation: women are concentrated in lower-paid fields and in part-time or informal work.
• The care burden: women do most unpaid child and elder care, which interrupts careers.
• Laws and norms: limits on property rights, inheritance, credit or travel still exist in some countries. Saudi Arabia lifted its ban on women driving in 2018, and women's labor force participation there roughly doubled over the following five years.

Scale of analysis: national figures hide gaps within households (who controls income) and between regions (urban women often have more paid work options than rural women). Name the scale your evidence comes from.

Calculate It 🧮

1) In a country, men's median yearly earnings are $50,000 and women's are $40,000. Women earn how many cents per dollar earned by men?

2) That same country's parliament has 250 seats, and women hold 70. What percent of seats do women hold?

3) Using the ILO's 2022 world figures (about 72% of men and 47% of women in the labor force), what is the gap in percentage points?

Case Study: Bangladesh's Garment Industry

Bangladesh shows both sides of women's work in an industrializing economy.

Reading the Case at Different Scales

• Global: brands in core countries source from Bangladesh because labor costs are low, a pattern the globalization topic explains as the new international division of labor.
• National: garments drove Bangladesh's industrial growth and helped it move from low income to lower-middle income in the World Bank's classification (2015).
• Household and individual: a factory wage can raise a young woman's bargaining power at home even when working conditions are poor.

🔑 AP Connection: FRQs often ask for a positive and a negative effect of industrialization on women. Bangladesh lets you give both with specific evidence: new independent income and later marriage on one side; low pay and unsafe factories on the other.

Check Your Understanding 🎯

Microfinance: Promise and Limits

Microfinance provides very small loans (microloans), savings accounts and insurance to people who cannot get credit from ordinary banks, usually because they have no collateral.

The Debate

• Supporters: loans let women start small businesses such as tailoring, poultry or shops, earn income they control and gain status in the household and village.
• Critics: interest rates are often high; some borrowers take new loans to repay old ones and fall deeper into debt, as in a 2010 crisis in the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh; and careful randomized studies in several countries found modest average effects on household income.
• Balanced view: microfinance helps some borrowers but is not, by itself, a cure for poverty. It works best alongside savings programs, education and access to markets.

Misconception: microloans are not development aid grants. They must be repaid with interest, which is why critics watch over-indebtedness closely.

Identify the Idea 🔍

🌍 Industrialization & Development

Part 6 of 7 — Theories of Development in Depth

🔑 Key Concept: Part 1 listed the theories. Here you learn what each assumes, what evidence fits it and where it fails. Rostow looks inside a country for the causes of development; dependency theory and world-system theory look at a country's position in the global economy (CED Topic 7.5).

📖 Rostow's Stages: Assumptions and Critiques

American economist W. W. Rostow published The Stages of Economic Growth: A Non-Communist Manifesto in 1960. The subtitle matters: during the Cold War, Rostow offered a capitalist path to development as an alternative to Soviet-style planning.

Rostow dated Britain's takeoff to about 1783–1802 and the United States' to about 1843–1860.

Evidence That Fits

South Korea moved from a poor, mostly rural country in the 1950s to a high-income industrial economy, with rapid growth led first by textiles and later by steel, ships, cars and electronics, roughly the sequence Rostow described.

Critiques

• Linear and universal: it assumes every country follows Europe's path, one stage after another.
• Ignores history and power: it treats poor countries as "early" rather than shaped by colonialism and unequal trade.
• Ignores the global context: latecomers face competition from countries that industrialized first, and countries cannot all become exporters of the same goods at once.
• Ignores environmental limits: if every country reached Stage 5 consumption, resource use would rise far beyond current levels.
• Too vague to test: the stages are hard to measure, so countries can be placed in different stages by different scholars.

Concept Check 🎯

Dependency Theory and Commodity Dependence

Dependency theory grew out of Latin America in the 1950s and 1960s.

• Raúl Prebisch, an Argentine economist at the UN Economic Commission for Latin America, argued (around 1950) that the prices of raw materials tend to fall over time relative to the prices of manufactured goods. Exporters of raw materials must therefore sell more and more to buy the same imports. This decline in the terms of trade is often called the Prebisch-Singer hypothesis.
• Andre Gunder Frank argued in 1966 that the periphery was not simply undeveloped but actively underdeveloped by its ties to the core: profits, raw materials and skilled people flowed out.

Policy response: many Latin American governments adopted import substitution industrialization (ISI) from the 1950s to the 1970s, using tariffs to protect new domestic factories so they could make goods that had been imported.

Commodity Dependence Today

UNCTAD calls a country commodity-dependent when raw materials (farm goods, minerals, fuels) make up more than 60% of its merchandise exports. By that measure, about two-thirds of developing countries were commodity-dependent in its 2023 report.

Worked case: Nigeria and the oil price. Petroleum supplies the great majority of Nigeria's export earnings. When world oil prices fell from over $100 a barrel in mid-2014 to under $30 in early 2016, Nigeria's export earnings and government revenue collapsed, and the economy fell into recession in 2016. A diversified economy would have absorbed the shock far better.

Critiques of Dependency Theory

• East Asian growth: South Korea, Taiwan and Singapore grew rich by integrating with core markets through exports, not by cutting ties.
• ISI's record: protected industries often stayed inefficient, and heavy borrowing contributed to the Latin American debt crisis of the 1980s.
• Too deterministic: it can make poor countries seem to have no choices, ignoring governance, education and policy.

Calculate It 🧮

A country exports $12 billion of goods a year: $9 billion of copper, $1 billion of tobacco and $2 billion of manufactured goods.

1) What percent of its exports are commodities (copper plus tobacco)?

2) Is the country commodity-dependent under UNCTAD's 60% threshold? (Type yes or no.)

3) If the copper price falls by half and nothing else changes, what is the new total value of exports, in billions of dollars?

Wallerstein's World-System Theory

Sociologist Immanuel Wallerstein (first volume of The Modern World-System, 1974) argued that since the 1500s there has been one capitalist world-economy with a single division of labor. Countries do not develop separately; they hold positions in that system.

What Makes It Different from Dependency Theory

• Three tiers, not two: the semi-periphery explains countries such as China, Brazil, India and Mexico that fit neither extreme.
• Mobility is possible: countries can move. South Korea rose from periphery toward the core; Argentina, among the richer countries around 1900, slipped toward the semi-periphery.
• The unit is the world, not the country: core and periphery describe processes, so they can coexist inside one country.

Limits

• Scale: national labels hide regions. Coastal Shanghai and Shenzhen run core-like activities while parts of western China remain peripheral.
• Economic focus: the theory says little about culture, governance or environment.
• Hard to test: the boundaries between tiers are not defined by fixed numbers, so classifications vary between sources.

Check Your Understanding 🎯

Comparing the Three Theories

🔑 AP Connection: When an FRQ asks you to explain a limitation of a development model, name the assumption and give a counterexample: "Rostow assumes every country follows one linear path, but colonial economies were organized to export raw materials, so they could not simply repeat Britain's stages."

Match the Theory 🔍

🌍 Industrialization & Development

Part 7 of 7 — AP Exam Practice and Synthesis Review

🔑 Key Concept: Industrialization and development form one chain: new technology changed where industry locates, which reshaped sectors and jobs, which shows up in development measures, which theories try to explain. Strong AP answers move along that chain and name the scale of each claim.

📖 How the Parts Fit Together

Five Errors to Avoid

1. Saying a higher GII means more equality (it means less).
2. Calling a product that gains weight in production "bulk-reducing" (it is bulk-gaining, so it locates near the market).
3. Treating Rostow's stages as proven rather than as a model with critiques.
4. Describing core and periphery as fixed lists of countries rather than positions that can change.
5. Using a national average to describe every region or household in a country.

Stimulus: Four Countries, Four Development Paths

The table describes four hypothetical countries in 1990 and 2020.

Reading the Table Before the Questions

1. Alpha moved workers out of farming and into export manufacturing while income rose nearly tenfold: a path close to Rostow's takeoff and drive to maturity, and a rise from periphery toward the core.
2. Beta grew slowly, kept a large farm workforce and depends on one commodity: the pattern dependency theory and commodity dependence describe.
3. Gamma mixes manufacturing and raw material exports, the profile of a semi-periphery country.
4. Delta has a tiny primary sector and exports high-value services and knowledge-based goods: a postindustrial core economy.

Limitation: four snapshots cannot show why each path happened. Policy, conflict, colonial history and geography all matter, and national figures hide regional differences.

Stimulus Questions 🎯

FRQ Practice with Model Answers

Try each part before reading the model.

A. Using the table, identify ONE change in Alpha's economy between 1990 and 2020 that shows industrialization.

Model: The share of Alpha's workers in agriculture fell from 45% to 8%, as workers moved into manufacturing that now produces its electronics, car and ship exports.

B. Explain how commodity dependence could limit Beta's development.

Model: Because crude oil makes up 85% of Beta's exports, a fall in world oil prices would sharply cut its export earnings and government revenue, forcing cuts to spending on schools, health care and infrastructure that development requires.

C. Explain ONE limitation of using GNI per capita alone to compare Gamma and Delta.

Model: GNI per capita is an average, so it does not show how income is distributed; if Gamma has a high Gini coefficient, most of its people could be much poorer than its average suggests.

D. Explain how Weber's least cost theory could account for Alpha's growth as an exporter of manufactured goods.

Model: Alpha's low GNI per capita in 1990 suggests low wages; for light, labor-intensive goods such as electronics assembly, wage savings outweighed the extra cost of shipping to distant markets, so firms located factories there, as Weber's labor factor predicts.

E. Describe ONE way industrialization in a country like Alpha could change the roles of women.

Model: Factory jobs in export industries hire many young women, giving them independent wages that can delay marriage and increase their say in household decisions, although such jobs often pay little and can be unsafe.

Why These Answers Score

• Each identifies with data from the table or explains with a cause and an effect ("so," "because," "which").
• Each uses the course term (commodity dependence, GNI per capita, Gini, least cost, labor factor).
• None just restates the question.

Mixed Review 🔍

Calculate It 🧮

Use the stimulus table.

1) By how many percentage points did the share of Alpha's workers in agriculture fall from 1990 to 2020?

2) By what percent did Delta's GNI per capita grow from 1990 to 2020? (Round to the nearest whole number.)

3) Beta's population is 50 million and 42% work in agriculture. How many million people is that? (Treat the whole population as the workforce for this question.)

Check Your Understanding 🎯