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All 7 Units in 1 Table
| Unit | Key Concepts | Key Model/Theory |
|---|---|---|
| 1. Thinking Geographically | Scale, absolute vs relative location, spatial patterns, map projections | Distance decay, diffusion |
| 2. Population & Migration | DTM, population pyramids, push/pull factors, Ravenstein laws | Demographic Transition Model |
| 3. Culture | Language families, religion, ethnicity, cultural diffusion, landscapes | Language/religion hearths; diaspora |
| 4. Political | State vs nation, boundaries, gerrymandering, devolution, supranationalism | Electoral geography, boundary disputes |
| 5. Agriculture | Neolithic/2nd/3rd Revolutions, settlement patterns, food systems | Von Thünen Model, Christaller Central Place |
| 6. Cities | Urbanization, urban models, world cities, gentrification, sprawl | Burgess, Hoyt, Harris-Ullman |
| 7. Development | HDI, Rostow stages, world systems, gender inequality, manufacturing | Wallerstein core-periphery, Rostow stages |
The 7 Must-Know Models
1. Demographic Transition Model (DTM)
4 stages:
- Stage 1 (High Fluctuation): High birth, high death → slow growth (pre-industrial).
- Stage 2 (Population Explosion): High birth, falling death → rapid growth (early development).
- Stage 3 (Declining Growth): Falling birth, low death → slowing growth (late development).
- Stage 4 (Low Fluctuation): Low birth, low death → very slow/no growth (developed).
Key transitions: Death rate falls first (medicine, sanitation) → population boom. Birth rate falls later (women's education, urbanization, contraception) → boom ends.
Examples: Stage 2: Yemen, Ethiopia. Stage 3: India, Brazil. Stage 4: Japan, Germany, Italy.
2. Von Thünen Model
Concentric zones of land use by distance to market city:
- Zone 1 (Innermost): Dairy, vegetables (high value, perishable).
- Zone 2: Grain, forestry (lower value, storable).
- Zone 3: Livestock grazing (lowest value, least transport-sensitive).
- Zone 4+: Wilderness.
Why? Rent is highest near market; farmers choose crops with highest return on limited land.
Real-world fit: Good for isolated agricultural regions. Fails when: Transport tech improves (refrigeration, highways), subsidies exist (EU farm subsidies), or terrain dominates (mountains).
3. Burgess Concentric Zone Model
Urban zones radiating from CBD:
- Zone 1: CBD (central business district).
- Zone 2: Transition zone (factories, old tenements, slums).
- Zone 3: Working-class residential.
- Zone 4: Middle-class residential.
- Zone 5: Upper-class suburbs, commuter zone.
Mechanism: Distance decay — accessibility to CBD determines land value and residential choice.
Real-world fit: Many older US industrial cities (Chicago, Detroit). Fails when: Terrain blocks expansion, public transit enables leap-frogging, or multiple centers exist.
4. Hoyt Sector Model
Urban growth follows transportation corridors, creating pie-shaped sectors of similar use radiating from CBD.
- High-rent sectors stretch outward along rail/highways.
- Low-rent sectors remain clustered in one direction.
- Unlike Burgess, land use is sectoral (wedge-shaped), not zonal (circular).
Real-world fit: Works for cities with strong transit corridors. Shortcoming: Doesn't explain multiple urban centers or sprawl.
5. Harris-Ullman Multiple Nuclei Model
Cities grow around multiple centers (CBD, airport, industrial park, edge city), not just a single CBD.
- Each nucleus attracts specific functions (airport → hotels, logistics; CBD → finance; industrial park → manufacturing).
- Land use is mosaic, not concentric or sectoral.
Why? Car-dependent suburban development allows growth anywhere, creating low-density sprawl with many scattered nodes.
Real-world fit: Best for modern, car-dependent US cities (Phoenix, Los Angeles, Atlanta).
6. Wallerstein World Systems Theory
Global economy divided into 3 tiers of countries with unequal power:
- Core: Wealthy, industrialized, high-value production (USA, Japan, Germany, France). Extract resources from periphery.
- Periphery: Poor, colonized history, low-value production, extraction economies (sub-Saharan Africa, Central America, parts of South Asia).
- Semi-periphery: In-between (Brazil, China, Mexico, Poland). Industrializing but reliant on core for technology and capital.
Mechanism: Unequal exchange — core countries buy raw materials cheap from periphery, sell finished goods dear back to periphery.
Critique: Explains global inequality and colonial legacies well. But ignores local agency, internal development, and exceptions (South Korea rose from semi-periphery to near-core).
7. Rostow Stages of Development
5 stages of economic growth (eurocentric model):
- Stage 1: Traditional Society — mostly subsistence agriculture.
- Stage 2: Preconditions for Takeoff — infrastructure, capital investment, education begin.
- Stage 3: Takeoff — rapid industrialization, urbanization, rising savings/investment.
- Stage 4: Drive to Maturity — high-tech industries, diversified economy.
- Stage 5: High Mass Consumption — service economy, high living standards.
Examples: Stage 1: some sub-Saharan Africa. Stage 2: India, Kenya. Stage 3: China, Vietnam. Stage 4: South Korea, Spain. Stage 5: USA, Germany, Japan.
Critique: Assumes all countries follow the same path (eurocentric). Ignores dependency, trade dynamics, and resource constraints. But useful for rough stage classification.
Must-Know Vocabulary (60 Terms)
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Absolute location | Exact coordinates (latitude/longitude) of a place. |
| Relative location | Position described by surrounding places (e.g., "south of Chicago"). |
| Scale | Local (neighborhood), regional (state), global (world). |
| Distance decay | Interaction/influence decreases with distance. |
| Diffusion | Spread of an idea, innovation, or disease outward from a source. |
| Agglomeration | Clustering of similar activities in one location. |
| Crude birth rate (CBR) | Annual births per 1,000 people. |
| Crude death rate (CDR) | Annual deaths per 1,000 people. |
| Rate of natural increase (RNI) | CBR − CDR; % population growth without migration. |
| Doubling time | Years for a population to double at current growth rate. |
| Population pyramid | Age-sex structure bar chart. Base wide = young population; narrow = aging. |
| Dependency ratio | Proportion of dependent (young + old) vs working-age population. |
| Replacement fertility | 2.1 children per woman (maintains stable population). |
| Push factor | Negative condition driving emigration (war, drought, poverty). |
| Pull factor | Positive condition attracting immigration (jobs, education, safety). |
| Ravenstein's laws | Distance decay, migration selectivity, step migration. |
| Diaspora | Scattering of ethnic/religious group from homeland. |
| Lingua franca | Common language for trade/communication (English globally). |
| Creole | Language blending two parent languages. |
| Cultural landscape | Visible human modification of environment. |
| Vernacular region | Region defined by cultural identity (not political boundaries). |
| Ethnic enclave | Neighborhood concentrated with one ethnic group. |
| Nation | Group sharing common identity (language, ethnicity, history). |
| Nation-state | Country where most citizens share a common nation. |
| Multinational state | Country with multiple ethnic/national groups. |
| Stateless nation | Ethnic group without sovereign territory (Kurds, Palestinians). |
| Sovereign state | Internationally recognized territory with government. |
| Boundary | Political line dividing territory. |
| Geometric boundary | Straight-line boundary (colonial legacy). |
| Consequential boundary | Boundary following natural features (rivers, ridges). |
| Gerrymandering | Redraw electoral districts to favor one party. |
| Packing | Concentrate opposition voters in few districts. |
| Cracking | Split opposition voters across many districts. |
| Supranationalism | Countries surrender sovereignty to larger organization (EU, ASEAN). |
| Devolution | Transfer of power from central to regional government. |
| Electoral geography | Spatial patterns of voting and political behavior. |
| Swing state | State with no clear partisan lean; pivotal in elections. |
| Neolithic Revolution | Transition from hunter-gatherer to agriculture (~10,000 BCE). |
| Second Agricultural Revolution | 3-field crop rotation, enclosure movement (medieval Europe). |
| Third Agricultural Revolution | Green Revolution — high-yield seeds, fertilizer, mechanization. |
| Shifting cultivation | Slash-and-burn agriculture; clear land, farm, abandon, let regrow. |
| Subsistence agriculture | Farming for own consumption, not market. |
| Commercial agriculture | Farming for profit/sale. |
| Plantation agriculture | Large-scale monoculture for export (sugar, cotton, coffee). |
| Settlement pattern | Distribution of human habitation (dispersed, clustered, linear). |
| Central place theory | Hierarchy of cities; larger cities farther apart, more functions. |
| Hierarchy | Ranked organization (NYC > Chicago > Des Moines). |
| Primate city | Dominant city in a country (Manila in Philippines, Bangkok in Thailand). |
| Primary city | Largest city in a region. |
| World city | Disproportionate global economic/cultural influence (NYC, London, Tokyo). |
| Concentric zone model | Burgess model — zones radiate from CBD. |
| Sector model | Hoyt model — pie-shaped sectors along transport corridors. |
| Multiple nuclei model | Harris-Ullman — multiple urban centers, not just CBD. |
| Urban hierarchy | Ranking of cities by size/function. |
| Urbanization | Increasing share of population in cities. |
| Suburbanization | Population decentralization from cities to suburbs. |
| Edge city | Suburban node with office/retail/jobs (not just residential). |
| Gentrification | Reinvestment in aging neighborhood; rising rents, displacement. |
| Redlining | Historical practice of denying loans/insurance to minority neighborhoods. |
| Urban sprawl | Low-density suburban expansion into farmland. |
| Deindustrialization | Decline of manufacturing sector. |
| Post-industrial | Economy focused on services, not manufacturing. |
| Human Development Index (HDI) | Composite of life expectancy, education, income. |
| Gender Development Index (GDI) | HDI adjusted for gender inequality. |
| Gender Inequality Index (GII) | Measures reproductive health, education, empowerment gender gaps. |
| Gross National Income (GNI) | Total income of citizens (not just GDP). |
| Dependency theory | Periphery remains poor due to core extraction. |
🎯 Speed hack: Don't memorize all 60. Focus on the 7 models and the 15 most common terms (DTM, push/pull, lingua franca, nation-state, boundary, von Thünen, Burgess, gentrification, world systems, HDI, GNI, urban sprawl, diaspora, agglomeration, scale).
Top 10 FRQ Traps
- Confusing the three urban models. Burgess = concentric zones, Hoyt = sectors, Harris-Ullman = multiple nuclei. Practice the distinction.
- DTM Stage confusion. Stage 2 = population explosion (high birth, falling death). Stage 3 = slowing growth (falling birth, low death). Many students flip them.
- Forgetting that "explain" ≠ "describe." Describe = what you see. Explain = why it happens, using geographic concepts.
- Not citing the model name. Don't say "cities spread out"; say "Harris-Ullman Multiple Nuclei Model explains sprawl."
- Mixing von Thünen (agriculture) with Burgess (urban). Von Thünen = agricultural zones by distance to market. Burgess = urban zones by distance to CBD.
- Confusing nation, nation-state, and stateless nation. Nation = identity. Nation-state = ideal alignment (rare). Stateless nation = ethnic group without territory (Kurds).
- Getting gentrification backward. Gentrification is reinvestment leading to displacement, not abandonment. It raises rents and displaces low-income residents.
- Forgetting world-systems has three tiers. Core, semi-periphery, periphery. Many students only remember core vs periphery.
- Misreading map scales or data tables. Always read the axis labels and legend. A mistake here cascades to 2–3 wrong answers.
- Writing generic answers. "Culture differs across regions because people are different" earns zero. "Lingua francas like English and Mandarin replace local languages due to globalization and migration" earns full credit.
Score boundaries (recent years)
Out of 120 total points (60 MCQ + 60 FRQ):
- 5: ~72+ (60%)
- 4: ~58–71 (48–59%)
- 3: ~42–57 (35–47%)
- 2: ~30–41 (25–34%)
- 1: below ~30 (below 25%)
You only need ~60% correct to earn a 5. You can miss 24 questions and still score top. Don't panic if a section stumps you.
Morning-of Checklist
- ☐ 8 hours of sleep (non-negotiable).
- ☐ Real breakfast (protein + slow carbs, not sugar alone).
- ☐ 2 sharpened pencils, blue/black pens, eraser.
- ☐ Photo ID + AP ID label sheet.
- ☐ Water, snack for the break.
- ☐ Watch (without alarm) if the room doesn't have a clock.
- ☐ Arrive 30 minutes early.
During the Exam
Section I (60 MCQs, 55 min)
- Read every question carefully. Misreading the question costs more points than not knowing the answer.
- Skip anything taking >90 seconds. Mark it and come back.
- Use process of elimination aggressively. Wrong answers often confuse models (Burgess vs Hoyt) or use wrong terminology.
- Last 5 minutes: Guess on blanks (no penalty).
Section II (3 FRQs, 75 min)
- Read all three prompts first (3 min). Choose your strongest one to start.
- Allocate ~10 min per FRQ (slightly over, but you can adjust).
- For each FRQ:
- Underline the command words (define, explain, analyze).
- Read the stimulus (table, map, text) carefully.
- Write 7 clear sentences (A–G).
- Always name the concept or model — don't assume the rubric knows what you mean.
- Never leave an FRQ blank. Set up the answer, define variables, name the model. Partial credit adds up.
💡 Pro tip: The rubric wants to give you points. Write clearly enough that it can.
One Last Thing
You've prepared. The work is done. Trust it. The exam tests application, not memorization. You know the models. You know the vocabulary. You know the command words. Show up rested, breathe between sections, read carefully, and let your preparation do the talking.
You've got this. 🎯
Need more focused review? Browse the AP Human Geography topic library, revisit the 3-day plan, or FRQ practice guide.