History & Approaches

🧠 History & Approaches to Psychology

Part 1 of 7 — Origins of Psychology

Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. It emerged as a distinct discipline in the late 19th century.

Key Milestones

Wundt is considered the "father of psychology" for establishing the first experimental laboratory.

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## Early Schools of Thought

Structuralism (Wundt, Titchener)

• Goal: identify basic elements of consciousness
• Method: introspection (trained self-observation)
• Criticism: too subjective, not replicable

Functionalism (William James)

• Goal: understand the purpose of consciousness
• Influenced by Darwin's theory of evolution
• Asked: "How does behavior help us adapt?"
• Led to applied psychology and educational psychology

Gestalt Psychology (Wertheimer)

• "The whole is greater than the sum of its parts"
• Studied perception and how we organize sensory information
• Principles: proximity, similarity, closure, continuity

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## Modern Psychological Perspectives

Biopsychosocial Approach

Modern psychology recognizes that behavior results from the interaction of:

• Biological factors (genetics, brain chemistry)
• Psychological factors (thoughts, emotions, personality)
• Social factors (culture, family, peers)

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## Subfields of Psychology

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## Research Methods in Psychology

The Scientific Method

1. Observe a phenomenon
2. Form a hypothesis (testable prediction)
3. Design and conduct an experiment
4. Analyze data using statistics
5. Draw conclusions and replicate

Types of Research

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## Variables & Experimental Design

Key Terms

• Independent variable (IV): what the researcher manipulates
• Dependent variable (DV): what is measured
• Control group: no treatment (comparison)
• Experimental group: receives treatment
• Random assignment: each participant has equal chance of being in any group
• Confounding variable: uncontrolled variable that may affect results

Example

Research question: Does caffeine improve test performance?

• IV: caffeine (yes/no)
• DV: test scores
• Control group: no caffeine
• Experimental group: caffeine given

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## Descriptive Statistics

Measures of Central Tendency

Measures of Variability

Normal Distribution

• Bell-shaped curve
• Mean = median = mode
• ~68% of scores within 1 SD of mean
• ~95% within 2 SD
• ~99.7% within 3 SD

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## Inferential Statistics

Statistical Significance

• p-value: probability that results occurred by chance
• p < 0.05: results are statistically significant
• Means there's less than a 5% chance the results are due to chance

Key Concepts

• Reliability: consistency of results
• Validity: does it measure what it claims to?
• Replication: repeating a study to verify results
• Operational definition: precise description of how a variable is measured

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## Ethics in Psychological Research

APA Ethical Guidelines

1. Informed consent: participants must know what the study involves
2. Deception: allowed only when necessary, must debrief afterward
3. Confidentiality: protect participants' personal information
4. Right to withdraw: participants can leave at any time
5. Debriefing: explain the true purpose of the study afterward
6. Minimize harm: avoid physical and psychological harm

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

• Reviews all research proposals involving human subjects
• Ensures ethical standards are met
• Weighs potential benefits against risks

Famous Ethical Controversies

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## Animal Research Ethics

• IACUC (Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee) oversees animal research
• Animals must be treated humanely
• Research must have scientific merit
• Minimize pain and suffering
• Use alternatives when possible

Animal research has contributed to understanding of:

• Learning (conditioning)
• Brain function
• Drug effects
• Genetics of behavior

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## Research Methods Problem-Solving

Common AP Question Types

1. Identify variables in an experiment (IV, DV, confounds)
2. Choose the appropriate research method for a scenario
3. Interpret statistical results (mean, SD, p-value)
4. Identify ethical violations in research scenarios
5. Distinguish correlation from causation

Practice Scenario

A researcher wants to know if sleep deprivation affects memory. She randomly assigns 40 college students to either a sleep-deprived group (4 hours) or a control group (8 hours), then tests their memory the next day.

• IV: Amount of sleep (4 hours vs 8 hours)
• DV: Memory test scores
• Random assignment: Yes → can establish causation
• Potential confound: Prior sleep habits, caffeine use

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## Tips

• Always identify IV and DV first
• Check for random assignment before claiming causation
• Look for confounding variables
• Remember: correlation ≠ causation
• Consider both reliability AND validity

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## AP Psychology: History & Methods Review

Key Comparisons

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## AP Exam Tips

• Know the key figures and their contributions
• Be able to design an experiment from a research question
• Understand the difference between correlation and causation
• Know ethical guidelines and famous ethical controversies
• Practice interpreting statistics (mean, SD, p-value)
• Remember the biopsychosocial approach

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